Question #15: What is the difference between an arm and a leg?

Why is it that we say dogs have four legs, humans have 2 legs and two arms and that octopi have 8 arms?

This is actually a very simple concept. Legs are used, exclusively, for walking, running and standing. Quadrupeds, those animals that walk on all four limbs, have four legs. Insects, like grasshoppers, have six legs and arachnids, like spiders, have eight legs.

Humans and some other animals such as apes and birds have two legs and two arms. We use two of our limbs for walking and two for other purposes. In humans and apes we use our arms for grabbing and manipulating things in our environment. Birds use their arms, we call them wings, for flight.

We call the appendages of octopi and squid arms because like humans they use these appendages for grasping and manipulating the environment. So, octopi have eight arms and squid have ten arms.

Then there are some odd animals like praying mantis. What do we do now? They appear to have four walking legs and the two forward appendages that are not always used for walking but catching prey. Praying mantis use their front appendages for walking when they are not catching prey so these are legs. Praying mantis therefore have six legs.

BUT WAIT.... it gets more complex.

When it comes to animals with internal skeletons anatomy takes over the definition of what is an arm and what is a leg. The definition is based on both joints and bones. Lets take a look at some ideas that define arms and legs via skeletal anatomy.

Shoulder and hip joints.
Shoulder and hip joints are very different. Shoulder joints attach front or fore limbs to the rest of the body allowing those limbs to move. Shoulder joints involve the humerus, upper arm bone, and the shoulder blades, as well as other bones which vary depending on the animal. Hip joints attach the lower or rear limbs to the body and involve the pelvis and femur.

The shoulder is a synovial ball and socket joint. This means that the joint has a sack of liquid, called a bursa filled with synovial fluid, around the joint area which allows it to glide more easily. (Like lubricating parts in a machine to help them move freely) Ball and socket joints allow for full circular movement, try it with your own shoulder (or hip as we will talk about soon)

Shoulder joint of a human (thanks to Brown University)

Quadrupeds, those animals with four legs or appendages for walking have restricted shoulder joints, which means they can not move as freely. If you are around a dog or cat you quickly notice their forelimbs, front legs, tend to only move from front to back and rarely directly out to the side. This is due to the restriction of the joint and the position of the bones involved. Compare the human shoulder above to the quadruped shoulder below.

Horse anatomy

There are two things to notice. The positions of the humerus and scapula, shoulder blade, are different. In humans, our shoulder blade is next to/behind the shoulder joint. In horses, the scapula is stacked on top of the humerus. This stacking offers greater weight bearing ability, necessary for carrying a body, but less mobility. Want more about the shoulder check out this site.

What about Pelvis and Femur?

The hip joint is also a synovial ball and socket joint formed by the head, top protrusion, of the femur sitting in a cup shaped cavity in the pelvis. Hip joints tend to be a more freely moving joint in all animals, both bipeds like humans and quadrupeds like horses. However, the same stacking effect happens for weight bearing. The hips of a quadruped are narrower and sit on top of the joint while the hips of a biped are wider and the joint is out to the side. More on the human hip joints can be found here. Compare the human and horse again below.

Human hip joint. In cross section to see the head of the femur sitting in the joint.

Horse skeleton showing the hip joint.

What is an arm and a leg?
There are two different answers.

1. Arms and legs defined by function. Legs are for walking and arms are for grasping and specialized tasks.

2. Arms and legs defined by anatomy of animals with internal skeletal systems. Arms have a shoulder joint where the shoulder blade, scapula, and the humerus met. Arms contain other bones including the radius and ulna, lower arm bones. Legs have the hip joint where the pelvis and femur meet. Legs contain additional bones in the leg, tibia and fibula.

These terms have two definitions, mostly, because not all animals have internal, bony skeletons. If we defined arms and legs solely on the second definition related to bones many animals... insects, cephalopods, crabs and others would need additional anatomical words to describe their appendages.

Question #14: What is that thing sticking off your body?

This will be the first in a series of several posts dedicated to identifying the science terms surrounding arms and legs.

First we need to start with the most general scientific term; appendage. This is more or less anything sticking off the head or torso of an animal. Appendages include: arms, legs, tails, antennae, tentacles, wings and fins among others. Most animals have some form of appendage.

A term that comes up in science discussion is the term Paired Appendages. This means we have paired items; two arms and two legs. We as humans are part of a group called Tetrapods which means we have two pairs of paired appendages plus some other traits that distinguish us from something like a grasshopper which also has paired appendages. We share this, Tetrapods, with mammals, dinosaurs, reptiles, amphibians, birds and snakes.... Wait. Snakes? Yes. Snakes are descendants of lizard like animals that had paired appendages. If you look at pythons you can still see their pelvis on x-rays and see the external extension of these called the spurs.

Python Skeleton showing the pelvic bones

Illustration of where the pelvic bones are in a python

Image of a python showing the exposed spurs or hind legs.

Pythons have vestigial legs. Vestigial is a term applied to a body part that still exists but does not seem to serve a purpose. Usually vestigial structures are much smaller than the original structure and can not perform the function of the original structure. Vestigial limbs are quite common in the animal world. In addition to snakes, some amphibians and birds also have vestigial appendages.

Dwarf Burrowing Skinks is a type of lizard that has vestigial legs. This animal moves more like a snake but you can still see the tiny legs in all of the species.

Some birds have vestigial wings; Kiwis and Cassowaries do. Their wings are barely short stubs that are not used, to the knowledge of science, for any purpose that other birds use their wings for.

Kiwi Wing

What about Ostriches and Penguins? While Ostriches and Penguins do not use their wings for aerial flight they are not considered vestigial because they have a purpose. In ostriches the wings are used for threat and breeding displays and also to shade chicks and eggs from the hot sun. Penguins still perform the motions of flight with their wings but instead use them to swim. In both cases these wings still perform necessary biological functions that other birds use their wings for. Other birds use their wings to shelter chicks from the weather and many water birds such as cormorants use their wings to swim.

Question #13: Natural vs. Manmade/Man produced Chemicals

This is a question that I am often asked and even more often hear others talking about. However, it is a misnomer from the scientific perspective. Before we get into the topic itself I think it is important to discuss scientific naming.

Lets talk about oranges.

The common store Naval or Sweet Orange is from the tree Citrus x sinensis. That is the genus and species name of the citrus tree that produces oranges. However, there are other citrus fruit but we would never call them oranges and the other fruits come from trees with different scientific names. The scientific name identifies the type of tree and its fruit.

Now, lets imagine two orange trees. One is growing in the forest of Southeast Asia where the orange tree likely evolved and the other is on a farm in Florida. We might say that the tree in Asia is growing naturally and that the one in Florida is being produced (farmed) by man. Does this mean that the oranges are any different if we know both trees are Citrus x sinensis? Nope, in fact, now that we know that the trees are the same species we know that the oranges are both the same too. This is how scientific names work. They identify a specific item so that when people discuss the item that everyone knows exactly what the subject is.

What about chemicals?

Lets talk about a chemical that people often talk about Formaldehyde. Formaldehyde has the chemical formula CH₂O and looks like the picture below when drawn.

Formaldehyde is the name that only identifies a chemical with that chemical formula and the atoms arranged in the way it is shown in the picture.

Natural vs Manmade Formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde occurs naturally in our bodies (and the bodies of other plants and animals) as a byproduct of the reactions that produce DNA, RNA and proteins. We could say this is naturally occurring or natural formaldehyde. It also occurs in the atmosphere and in outerspace. (known as Interstellar Formaldehyde)

Manmade formaldehyde is produced with a combination of metals (iron or silver often) and methanol (wood alcohol). This is known as the Formox process.

So, what is the difference between the manmade and naturally occurring formaldehyde? Nothing. As the name formaldehyde identifies the chemical with a unique chemical formula and way the atoms are arranged the process used to produce it has no effect on how the formaldehyde will react. Both, made in our body and processed in a plant, have the same chemical properties, the same LD50 (i.e. level of toxicity), and reactivity.

The same can be said for any chemical. To have the name the chemical must be the same. (an orange is an orange if it has the same species name) Other examples would be carbon dioxide produced when we exhale and carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels.

Other considerations or what really matters?
When it comes to chemicals concentration, not where it was produced, is what is important.  High concentrations of chemicals can happen naturally, consider the salt content of the dead sea. High concentrations can happen from the activities of man, consider the salt destruction of soils through irrigation practices. Both of these are detrimental to growing plants though one is a natural occurrence. We can also have beneficial concentrations of sodium, for example, we need sodium chloride to move our muscles and pass electrical current through our neurons. In all cases the salt, sodium chloride or NaCl, has the same arrangement of atoms and is the same substance. In truth, all chemical substances, including water, have a point where they are safe and where they are dangerous. Though there doesn't seem to be a complete list of LD50s, the amount required to have a 50% chance of death, there is a place that will calculate and has a list of some common chemicals here.